Sensation, Attention and Perception

What is sensation?

Sensation is the input about the physical world provided by our sensory receptors. We receive visual inputs when light activates our visual receptors. Our sense organs have specialized receptors which get activated by different stimuli.

What is psychophysics?

Psychophysics studies about the relationship between the physical stimuli which activate our sensory receptors and the corresponding psychological experience felt by us.

The earliest law in classical psychophysics was given by Weber and thus known as Weber's law. It states that the just noticeable difference is in constant proportion to the strength of initial stimuli. So for example, if the proportion is 1:5, then a person will detect difference between an initial weight of 50g when 10g more is placed. For 500g, a difference will be detected when 100g is placed. So, the proportion of just noticeable difference with initial stimuli remains constant.


What is sensory adaptation?
Our receptors dont fire when the intensity of the stimulus doesnt change and remains constant, Thus we notice reduced sensitivity to an unchanging stimuli.

For e.g,, if we dip in a cold water, intitally the water feels very cold, but gradually we get adapted to the water and it doesnt feel much cold.

Sensory adaptation is a process of helping us cope with the changing world. For e.g, the clothes we wear stop giving sensations after some time. Similarly, the presence of our tongue between the teeth also doesnt show much stimulation because of sensory adaptation.   

Attitude

Discuss cognitive dissonance theory of attitude change.

Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance 

Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance).

An important factor here is the principle of cognitive consistency, the focus of Festinger's (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance

How attitude change takes place?

Dissonance can be reduced in one of three ways:

First, individuals can change one or more of the attitudes, behavior, beliefs etc. so as to make the relationship between the two elements a consonant one.

A second (cognitive) method of reducing dissonance is to acquire new information that outweighs the dissonant beliefs. For example, thinking smoking causes lung cancer will cause dissonance if a person smokes. However, new information such as “research has not proved definitely that smoking causes lung cancer” may reduce the dissonance.

A third way to reduce dissonance is to reduce the importance of the cognitions(i.e. beliefs, attitudes). A person could convince themself that it is better to "live for today" than to "save for tomorrow." In other words, he could tell himself that a short life filled with smoking and sensual pleasures is better than a long life devoid of such joys. In this way, he would be decreasing the importance of the dissonant cognition (smoking is bad for ones health).

The theory of cognitive dissonance has been widely researched in a number of situations to develop the basic idea in more detail, and various factors that have been identified which may be important in attitude change.

This research can be divided into three main areas:

1. forced compliance behavior,
2. decision-making,
3. and effort.

Forced compliance behavior

Experiment : $1 vs $20 experiment. Participants changed their attitude towards the experiment.

Effort

If we put effort into a task which we have chosen to carry out, and the task turns out badly, we experience dissonance. To reduce this dissonance, we are motivated to try to think that the task turned out well. A classic dissonance experiment by Aronson and Mills (1959) demonstrates the basic idea.

Female students volunteered to take part in a discussion on the psychology of sex. In the 'mild embarrassment' condition, participants read aloud to a male experimenter a list of sex-related words like 'virgin' and 'prostitute'.

In the 'severe embarrassment' condition, they had to read aloud obscene words and a very explicit sexual passage. In the control condition, they went straight into the main study. In all conditions they then heard a very boring discussion about sex in lower animals. They were asked to rate how interesting they had found the discussion, and how interesting they had found the people involved in it.

RESULT

Participants in the 'severe embarrassment' condition gave the most positive rating

Decision Making

Participants were also told that they would receive one of the products at the end of the experiment to compensate for their time and effort. The women then rated the desirability of eight household products that ranged in price from $15 to $30. The products included an automatic coffee maker, an electric sandwich grill, an automatic toaster, and a portable radio.

Participants in the control group were simply given one of the products. Because these participants did not make a decision, they did not have any dissonance to reduce. Individuals in the low-dissonance group chose between a desirable product and one rated 3 points lower on an 8-point scale. Participants in the high-dissonance condition chose between a highly desirable product and one rated just 1 point lower on the 8-point scale. After reading the reports about the various products, individuals rated the products again.

Participants in high dissonance condition were more likely than participants in the other two conditions to increase the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and to decrease the attractiveness of the unchosen alternative.

EVALUATION

However, there is a problem from a scientific point of view, because we cannot physically observe cognitive dissonance, and therefore we cannot objectively measure it (re: behaviorism). Consequently, the term cognitive dissonance is somewhat subjective. 

There is also some ambiguity (i.e. vagueness) about the term 'dissonance'itself. Is it a perception (as 'cognitive' suggests), or a feeling, or a feeling about a perception? Aronson's revision of the idea of dissonance as inconsistency between a person's self-concept and a cognition about their behavior makes it seem likely that dissonance is really nothing more than guilt.

There are also individual differences in whether or not people act as this theory predicts. Highly anxious people are more likely to do so. Many people seem able to cope with considerable dissonance and not experience the tensions the theory predicts.

Finally, many of the studies supporting the theory of cognitive dissonance have low ecological validity. For example, turning pegs (as in Festinger's experiment) is an artificial task that doesn’t happen in everyday life. Also, the majority of experiments used students as participants, which raise issues of a biased sample. Could we generalize the results from such experiments?

Positive psychology

For long psychology remained confined to the disease model. The intention of this approach was to classify and recognize the various mental disorders and help to cure them. It attempted to make the lives of miserable people a little bit less miserable. Through decades of research, this approach had various achievements:
a) In developing classification for various mental disorders
b) In researching for the causes for the mental disorders. For e.g schizophrenia has now causative factors in genes, upbringing etc.
c) In developing cures and treatments for the various disorders.

Though these successes can be claimed, one of the important drawbacks of this approach was that the focus of psychology was changed to repair and treatment and not prevention and interventions, It did not focus much on creating conditions for healthy development of normal people and make their lives more satisfying and full.

The positive psychology movement thus has three major focus areas:
a) concerned with strength as with weakness
b) interested in building the best things in life as in repairing the worst
c) concerned with making the lives of normal people as fulfilling and nurturing high talent as with healing pathology

Personality - Stability and consistency in us

Q. What is personality? Discuss Freud's approach to personality.

A. Personality is defined as uniqueness and consistency in behavior, thoughts and feelings across situation over time.

Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, which argued that personality is formed through conflicts among three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego.

The id represents the  storehouse of all our primitive and innate urges.These include various body needs, sexual desire and aggressive impulses. The id is totally unconscious and operates in accordance of pleasure principle. It demands immediate and total gratification without calculating the costs involved.

As all the impulses originating from id can't be realistically satisfied, another structure of personality develops which is called ego. Its task is to hold id in check until the conditions allow for satisfaction of its impulses. It works on the reality principle. Ego is mostly conscious but some part of it is unconscious which deals with conflicts with the id.

The final aspect of personality, superego, develops to check if the satisfaction of an impulse is morally correct or not. The superego is derived from our parents and through experience and represents our internalization of the moral teachings and norms of the society. The superego resides mostly in the preconscious part of the brain.

The personality development then progresses in stages which Freud termed as psychosexual stages of development. The various stages one passes through were oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. The constant struggle between id, ego and superego leads to the development of personality.


Q. Critically evaluate the psycho social theory of personality development.

A. Psycho social theories of personality development emphasize the importance of social and cultural forces in addition to the psychic forces in the development of personality. Some of these theories are given by Karen Horney, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson etc.

The strengths of psycho social theories of development are: 
1. These theories brought the importance of social and cultural factors in the development of personality. For example, Horney emphasized about the strength of interpersonal relationships for coping with the anxiety, Adler talked about the innate social interest